If Your Child is Not Feeling Well

Diarrhea

An infection, trouble digesting certain foods, or too much fruit juice are among the causes. If your child gets it, keep her at home and hydrated. If she's on solids, avoid high-fiber and greasy foods. Call the doctor if she isn't better in 24 hours, is under 6 months old, or has other symptoms, such as a fever of 101 or higher, vomiting, peeing less than usual, fast heart rate, bloody or black stool, or belly pain.

Fever

Call the doctor immediately if

• A baby under 3 months has a rectal temperature of 100.4 or higher.
• A baby 3 to 6 months old has a temperature of 101 or higher.
• Or if an infant is crying, irritable, and can't be comforted.

Watch for ear pain, a cough, lethargy, a rash, vomiting, or diarrhea. Soothe your little one with fluids, a lukewarm bath, and by dressing him in lightweight clothes. Ask your doctor about safe ways to lower a fever.

Little Children and Constipation

Some babies poop several times a day; others go a few days between bowel movements. Don't worry if your baby or toddler doesn't go as often as you'd expect. True constipation is when stools are hard and painful to pass. Your doctor may suggest adding a few extra ounces of water or a little bit of prune juice to your child's bottle or sippy cup. If constipation continues or your baby has other symptoms, such as abdominal pain or vomiting, call the doctor.

Rashes

Babies have sensitive skin. Rashes can range from pimples to little white bumps (milia) to red, dry, itchy patches (eczema). To avoid diaper rash, change diapers often, and apply an ointment for protection. For eczema, avoid harsh soaps and keep skin moisturized. Most rashes aren't serious, but call the doctor if your baby's rash is painful or severe, or if he also has a fever or blisters.

Cough: Babies and Toddlers

Babies' coughs come in many varieties. A seal-like barking cough could be croup. Coughs with a low-grade fever are often from a cold, but a higher fever may mean pneumonia or the flu. Wheezing with a cough could be asthma or an infection. Babies with pertussis -- whooping cough -- make a "whooping" sound. A cool-mist humidifier and fluids can ease symptoms. Cough medicines should not be given to babies or children under 4.

Stomach Ache Symptoms

Uncontrollable crying, back arching, and spitting up are all symptoms of an upset tummy. It could be caused by colic, gastroesophageal reflux, food intolerance, virus, or other reasons. Toddlers can also have problems as they try different foods. Most stomach aches aren't dangerous and will go away. If it doesn't improve, or your child vomits, has diarrhea, becomes lethargic, or runs a fever, call the doctor.

Teething Pain

By about the sixth month, baby's first teeth will start poking through her gums. Sore gums can make babies very cranky. Relieve teething pain by giving your baby something to chew on. A rubber teething ring works well. Gently massaging baby's gums with your finger can also help.

Babies, Toddlers, and Gas Pain

Burping, crying, and flatulence can be signs of infant gas. Gas isn't the same as colic, which can lead to inconsolable crying. Because gas is often caused by swallowing air, feed your baby slowly and burp often. Toddlers can get gas from high-fiber or fatty foods, or by drinking too much juice.

Stuffy Noses

When babies have colds, their noses can get very stuffy. Over-the-counter cold medicine should not be used in children under 4 years. Instead, use saline drops to thin out mucus and then suction it out of baby's nose with a bulb syringe. Turn on the vaporizer to help your child breathe easier at night.

Nausea and Vomiting

Babies often spit up after eating, but forceful or persistent vomiting needs a doctor's evaluation. Vomiting with diarrhea may signal a virus. Fluid loss from vomiting can lead to dehydration. Keep your child hydrated with small, frequent amounts of an electrolyte solution. If vomiting doesn't stop in a few hours, or is accompanied by a fever in an infant, or your child can't keep down fluids, call your doctor.

Keeping Calm When Baby's Not

There's nothing more distressing to a new parent than a sick baby. Try not to lose your cool. Trust your instincts, but stay alert for signs that you need to call your health care provider or seek emergency care. Some warning signs include changes in appetite, extreme fussiness, lethargy, breathing problems, rash, neck stiffness, seizure, high fever, and a lack of wet diapers

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The Facts on Childhood Illnesses

The Facts on Childhood Illnesses

There are so many childhood diseases, infectious and noninfectious, that it would be impossible to list them all here. However, we will introduce some of the most common ones, including viral and bacterial infections as well as allergic and immunologic illnesses.

Bronchiolitis

A number of different viruses cause bronchiolitis (inflammation of the small airways), which affects children less than 1 year of age. Most commonly, it is caused by RSV (respiratory syncytial virus), but it can also be caused by influenza and other common viruses associated with upper respiratory symptoms such as fever, runny nose, and cough. A common symptom of bronchiolitis includes all of the above and wheezing (the same symptom observed in children with asthma). It is common in the winter months, and some infants will require admission to a hospital when the respiratory symptoms are very severe. The treatment of bronchiolitis is different from asthma; however, some of the same medications might be used. For a small percentage of infants, this first wheezing episode may be a harbinger of a future diagnosis of asthma, but for most, it is a onetime event.

Ear Infections

Ear infections are very common in children and are caused by a dysfunction of the Eustachian tubes, the tubes that connect the inner ears to the throat and serve as a drain for any fluid that may collect there. When fluid collects, it attracts bacteria and other germs, which may multiply and cause a symptomatic infection. Symptoms include fever, ear pain, tugging on the ear, or even drainage from the ear canal. Treatment of ear infections may involve observation or antibiotics. Occasionally, the fluid inside the middle ear may need to be drained.

Glue Ear

When fluid in the middle ear builds up and fails to clear up on its own or after treatment, it may need to be surgically drained. This procedure is called tympanocentesis. A needle is inserted into the middle ear and fluid is removed. Sometimes, because of recurrent infections or a chronic effusion (fluid that persists for at least three months), a tympanostomy tube may need to be inserted in the tympanic membrane (eardrum), which allows the middle ear to drain and function appropriately. The tubes remain in place and generally fall out by themselves after about a year. In most cases, the eardrum heals and functions normally after this procedure.

Croup

Croup is common in young children. A number of different viruses cause croup, and inflammation of the upper airways, including the larynx (voice box) and trachea (windpipe), cause symptoms. These symptoms include a barking cough and stridor, a wheeze on inspiration. Most children with croup can be treated at home, but occasionally, when severe enough, hospitalization may be required. Treatment may include steroids and inhaled medications for the more severe cases. Always check with your doctor if you are concerned or if your child appears ill.

Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease

Coxsackievirus causes hand, foot, and mouth disease. It is extremely common during the summer and early fall and resolves on its own after about 10 days. The virus causes fever, sore throat, and blisters inside the mouth, on the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet, There is no medical treatment for the infection, except supportive care including pain relievers.

Pinkeye

Pinkeye is also called conjunctivitis. A virus is the most common cause of pinkeye, but a bacterial infection can cause it on occasion. Pinkeye is very contagious and can spread through schools and day cares quickly. Always talk with a health-care professional to determine whether additional therapy is needed, but most cases resolve within five days.

Fifth Disease

A virus called parvovirus B19 causes fifth disease. This very common infection appears in the majority of children as a cold followed by a rash on the face and body. The typical description of the rash is a "slapped-cheek" appearance, since the rash is usually bright and appears as a reddish patch. The rash usually resolves within a week to 10 days. The only major risk of parvovirus is to pregnant women who have never been exposed to parvo in the past. There is a significant risk to the fetus for those individuals.

Rotavirus

Rotavirus infection is responsible for significant morbidity and mortality in children in less developed countries where access to the rotavirus vaccine is limited. The infection causes significant fever, vomiting, and diarrhea in children. This can often lead to serious problems with dehydration, especially in very young children and infants. Before the introduction of the vaccine in the United States, rotavirus infection was a very common cause for hospital admission. Current studies indicate that the virus has resulted in up to 95% fewer admissions due to rotavirus infection to hospitals as result of vaccination.

Kawasaki Disease

Kawasaki disease is a very serious disease that can mimic many infections. When unrecognized and untreated, it can result in severe damage to the coronary arteries of the heart, resulting in heart attack and sudden death in children. Luckily, most pediatricians are taught to look out for Kawasaki disease and learn to recognize the illness based on common signs and symptoms. These include high prolonged fever (greater than five days), a rash, cracked and dry lips, red eyes, enlarged neck lymph nodes, and swelling of the hands and feet. Hospitalization is recommended, and administration of IVIG (immunoglobulin) and aspirin are necessary. This treatment, when started early enough in the course of illness, prevents progression of the heart problems. The cause remains unknown.

Chickenpox

The varicella virus causes chickenpox. Vaccination is routine now, and it is rare to see a regular case now. Before the vaccine, it was a very common cause of hospital admission. Though chickenpox infection is usually a benign (but uncomfortable) event in a child's life, there is a significant risk of severe complications, including bacterial skin infections, pneumonia, and others. That is the reason that vaccination is recommended and routine.

Measles

The rubeola virus causes measles, and it used to be an extremely common childhood infection prior to routine vaccination. Unfortunately, due to an increased rate of vaccination refusals by parents, we are starting to see sporadic outbreaks amongst those groups. Measles is an acute viral illness that can lead to serious complications, even death, and generally begins with nonspecific symptoms such as high fever, runny nose, and cough. Following these symptoms, patients develop a rash that spreads from the face to the feet. Symptoms generally start one to two weeks after exposure, and the symptoms last for less than a week.

Mumps

Mumps is a viral illness that typically starts with flu-like symptoms and then results in acute painful swelling of the salivary glands (parotitis). Prior to routine vaccination, this was a very common illness. Symptoms generally appear more than two weeks after exposure, and the illness lasts seven to 10 days. As with many of the childhood viral illnesses, though most infections are mild, there is a real risk for complications, including meningitis and death.

Rubella (German Measles)

Rubella, also known as German measles, causes mild illness in most individuals. This is not the case for unvaccinated pregnant women. The virus can cause serious and fatal birth defects in the fetus. Vaccination is routine and has resulted in a huge decrease in the spread. The virus begins as a fever and rash and, in most cases, resolves after two to three days.

Whooping Cough (Pertussis)

Bordetella pertussis is the bacteria that cause whooping cough. It is highly contagious and is sometimes fatal in young children, especially babies. The infection is preventable with vaccination; however, it is often unrecognized in older children and adults. The infection usually begins with cold symptoms and then develops into a cough that is persistent and violent, making it hard to catch a breath. Whooping cough got its name due to the deep whooping inspiration many children and infants make after the cough stops. Vaccination is recommended for young children, teenagers, and adults.

Meningitis

Meningitis is an inflammation of the tissue surrounding the brain and spinal cord (meninges). Viruses or bacteria may cause meningitis. Symptoms include headache, stiff neck, fever, and malaise. Routine vaccination has decreased the incidence of many bacterial causes; however, viral causes are still common. Bacterial meningitis can result in severe outcomes, including permanent hearing loss, brain damage, and even death.

Strep Throat

A strain of Streptococcus, a common skin bacterium, causes strep throat. Symptoms include a sore throat and fever that lasts more than a few days. Often there may be a white-colored discharge (pus) in the back of the throat and enlarged lymph nodes on the neck. Strep throat will resolve on its own, however, antibiotics are recommended due to the risk of developing rheumatic heart disease, a serious but preventable consequence of strep infections.

Scarlet Fever

A strep infection causes scarlet fever, which may appear after the throat infection. It is a common infection and starts with a fever and possibly sore throat, followed by a rash that begins on the chest and spreads to the rest of the body. Antibiotics are recommended to eradicate the bacteria and to prevent rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease.

Reye's Syndrome

Aspirin and aspirin-containing medications should never be given to children. Reye's syndrome is a potentially fatal illness that is caused by exposure to these medications and results in life-threatening liver failure and subsequent brain swelling. It is luckily an uncommon illness today since the recognition of aspirin exposure as a cause.

MRSA (Staph Infection)

MRSA, or methicillin-resistant Staph aureus, is an antibiotic-resistant organism that causes skin infections such as boils and abscesses (deep skin infections) or even worse. It is becoming more common and can spread and cause life-threatening infections in health-care facilities. What makes this more challenging is that many individuals are asymptomatic carriers and can spread it to susceptible individuals. Treatment may include antibiotics but not all require this.

Impetigo

Staph or strep, two very common skin bacteria, may cause impetigo. It generally appears as a bunch of small blisters that pop and form honey-colored crust. Impetigo can appear anywhere on the body and is most commonly diagnosed in young children. Antibiotics are necessary in most cases.

Ringworm

A common fungus causes ringworm. This is not a "helminthic" disease (no worms involved). The name was developed due to the "worm-like" ring that is seen during these infections. Antifungal medications treat ringworm. It can spread from child to child, so care needs to be taken.

Lyme Disease

Lyme disease is a common infection caused by a bacterium carried by a specific deer tick. Once bitten by an infected tick, there is a risk that the individual will develop the symptoms of Lyme disease, including rash, fever, body aches, and sometimes more severe symptoms involving the nervous system and joints. The rash is somewhat specific and appears as a large target-looking eruption one to two weeks after exposure. Lyme disease is hard to transmit unless the tick is attached for more than 24 hours. Antibiotics are the treatment of choice.

Flu

The flu typically is seen during the winter months and causes high fever, chills, body aches, and other symptoms. It usually resolves on its own, but in some, it can result in serious complications including pneumonia. Currently, annual vaccination is recommended universally for all people aged 6 months and older.

Seasonal Allergies

Seasonal allergies are the bane of many children and adults. Runny noses, sneezing, and puffy eyes are all common symptoms. Unfortunately, there is no cure for these; however, there are medications that can be taken to lessen the symptoms. Antihistamines are available as both prescription and nonprescription formulations and can be taken orally, used as nasal sprays, and even as eyedrops. The goal is to decrease the severity of the symptoms

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What Is Cancer ?

What Is Cancer ?

In the most basic terms, cancer refers to cells that grow out-of-control and invade other tissues. Cells may become cancerous due to the accumulation of defects, or mutations, in their DNA. Certain inherited genetic defects (for example, BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations) and infections can increase the risk of cancer. Environmental factors (for example, air pollution) and poor lifestyle choices—such as smoking and heavy alcohol use—can also damage DNA and lead to cancer.
Most of the time, cells are able to detect and repair DNA damage. If a cell is severely damaged and cannot repair itself, it usually undergoes so-called programmed cell death or apoptosis. Cancer occurs when damaged cells grow, divide, and spread abnormally instead of self-destructing as they should.

Malignant Tumors Vs. Benign Tumors

A tumor is an abnormal mass of cells. Tumors can either be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

Benign Tumors

Benign tumors grow locally and do not spread. As a result, benign tumors are not considered cancer. They can still be dangerous, especially if they press against vital organs like the brain.

Malignant Tumors

Malignant tumors have the ability to spread and invade other tissues. This process, known as metastasis, is a key feature of cancer. There are many different types of malignancy based on where a cancer tumor originates.

Cancer Metastasis

Metastasis is the process whereby cancer cells break free from a malignant tumor and travel to and invade other tissues in the body. Cancer cells metastasize to other sites via the lymphatic system and the bloodstream. Cancer cells from the original—or primary—tumor can travel to other sites such as the lungs, bones, liver, brain, and other areas. These metastatic tumors are "secondary cancers" because they arise from the primary tumor.

What Is Metastasized Cancer ?

Metastatic cancer retains the name of the primary cancer. For example, bladder cancer that metastasizes to the liver is not liver cancer. It is called metastatic bladder cancer. Metastasis is significant because it helps determine the staging and treatment. Some types of metastatic cancer are curable, but many are not.

What Causes Cancer ?

Certain genes control the life cycle—the growth, function, division, and death—of a cell. When these genes are damaged, the balance between normal cell growth and death is lost. Cancer cells are caused by DNA damage and out-of-control cell growth. The following is a partial list of factors known to damage DNA and increase the risk of cancer:

Mutations Cause

Genetic mutations may cause cancer. For example, mutations of genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 (linked to an increased risk of breast and ovarian cancers) can inhibit the body's ability to safe-guard and repair DNA. Copies of these mutated genes can be passed on genetically to future generations, leading to a genetically-inherited increased risk of cancer.

Environment Cause

Cancer may be caused by environmental exposure. Sunlight can cause cancer through ultraviolet radiation. So can air pollutants like soot, wood dust, asbestos, and arsenic, to name just a few.

Microbes Cause

Some microbes are known to increase cancer risks. These include bacteria like H. pylori, which causes stomach ulcers and has been linked to gastric cancer. Viral infections (including Epstein-Barr, HPV, and hepatitis B and C) have also been linked to cancer.

Lifestyle and Diet Causes

Lifestyle choices can lead to cancer as well. Eating a poor diet, inactivity, obesity, heavy alcohol use, tobacco use including smoking, and exposure to chemicals and toxins are all associated with greater cancer risk.

Causes of Cancer: Treatment

Medical treatment with chemotherapy, radiation, targeted treatments (drugs designed to target a specific type of cancer cell) or immunosuppressive drugs used to decrease the spread of cancer throughout the body can also cause damage to healthy cells. Some “second cancers”, completely separate from the initial cancer, have been known to occur following aggressive cancer treatments; however, researchers are producing drugs that cause less damage to healthy cells (for example, targeted therapy).

Cancer Symptoms and Signs

There are more than 100 different types of cancer. Every cancer and every individual is unique. Cancer symptoms and signs depend on the size and location of the cancer as well as the presence or absence of metastasis.

Common Cancer Symptoms and Signs

Symptoms and signs of cancer may include:

• Fever
• Pain
• Fatigue
• Skin changes (redness, sores that won't heal, jaundice, darkening)
• Unintended weight loss or weight gain

Other more obvious signs of cancer may include:

• Lumps or tumors (mass)
• Difficulty swallowing
• Changes or difficulties with bowel or bladder function
• Persistent cough or hoarseness
• Short of breath
• Chest pain
• Unexplained bleeding or discharge

6 Types of Cancer

Cancer can occur anywhere in the body. Broadly, cancers are classified as either solid (for example breast, lung, or prostate cancers) or liquid (blood cancers). Cancer is further classified according to the tissue in which it arises.

What Is Carcinoma?

Carcinomas are cancers that occur in epithelial tissues in the body. They comprise 80% to 90% of all cancers. Most breast, lung, colon, skin, and prostate cancers are carcinomas. This class includes the two most common skin cancers, basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. Also in this class is the glandular cancer adenocarcinoma.

What Is Sarcoma Cancer?

Sarcomas occur in connective tissue like the bones, cartilage, fat, blood vessels, and muscles. This class of cancers includes the bone cancers osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma, Kaposi sarcoma (which causes skin lesions), and the muscle cancers rhabdomyosarcoma and leiomyosarcoma.

What Is Myeloma Cancer?

Myelomas are cancers that occur in plasma cells in the bone marrow. This class of cancer includes multiple myeloma, also known as Kahler disease.

What Is Leukemia?

Leukemias are a group of different blood cancers of the bone marrow. They cause large numbers of abnormal blood cells to enter the bloodstream.

What Is Lymphoma Cancer?

Lymphomas are cancers of the immune system cells. These include the rare but serious Hodgkin lymphoma (Hodgkin's lymphoma, also Hodgkin's disease) and a large group of white blood cell cancers known collectively as non-Hodgkin lymphoma (non-Hodgkin's lymphoma).

What Is Mixed Cancer?

Mixed cancers arise from more than one type of tissue.

7 Common Cancers

Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States. The most common cancers diagnosed in the U.S. are those of the breast, prostate, lung, colon and rectum, and bladder. Cancers of the lung, colon and rectum, breast, and pancreas are responsible for the most deaths. The prognosis of different cancers is highly variable. Many cancers are curable with early detection and treatment. Cancers that are aggressive or diagnosed at a later stage may be more difficult to treat, and can even be life threatening.

What Is a Breast Cancer?

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in the United States, and one of the deadliest. About one in eight women will develop invasive breast cancer at some point in her life. Though death rates have decreased since 1989, more than 40,000 U.S. women are thought to have died from breast cancer in 2015 alone.

What Is Lung Cancer?

Lung cancer is the second-most-common cancer in the United States, and it is the deadliest for both men and women. In 2012, more than 210,000 Americans were diagnosed with lung cancer, and in the same year more than 150,000 Americans died from lung cancer. Worldwide, lung cancers are the most common cancers.

What Is a Prostate Cancer?

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer found in men. In 2013, more than 177,000 Americans were diagnosed with prostate cancer, and more than 27,000 American men died from prostate cancer.

What Is a Colorectal Cancer?

Of the cancers that can impact both men and women, colorectal cancer is the second-greatest killer in the United States.

What Is a Liver Cancer?

Liver cancer develops in about 20,000 men and 8,000 women each year. Hepatitis B and C and heavy drinking increase one's risk of developing liver cancer.

What Is a Ovarian Cancer?

About 20,000 American women are diagnosed with ovarian cancer each year. For American women, ovarian cancer is the eighth most common cancer and the fifth leading cause of cancer death.

What Is a Pancreatic Cancer?

Pancreatic cancer has the highest mortality rate of all major cancers. Of the roughly 53,000 Americans diagnosed with pancreatic cancer each year, only 8 percent will survive more than five years.

How Stages of Cancer Are Determined

Doctors use the stages of cancer to classify cancer according to its size, location, and extent of spread. Staging helps doctors determine the prognosis and treatment for cancer. The TNM staging system classifies cancers according to:

• Tumor (T): Primary tumor size and/or extent
• Nodes (N): Spread of cancer to lymph nodes in the regional area of the primary tumor
• Metastasis (M): Spread of cancer to distant sites away from the primary tumor

Some cancers, including those of the brain, spinal cord, bone marrow (lymphoma), blood (leukemia), and female reproductive system, do not receive a TNM classification. Instead, these cancers are classified according to a different staging systems.

What Are The Stages of Cancer?

The TNM classification of a cancer usually correlates to one of the following five stages.

• Stage 0: This refers to cancer that is "in situ," meaning that cancerous cells are confined to their site of origin. This type of cancer has not spread and is not invading other tissues.
• Stage I – Stage III: These higher stages of cancer correspond to larger tumors and/or greater extent of disease. Cancers in these stages may have spread beyond the site of origin to invade regional lymph nodes, tissues, or organs.
•  
• Stage IV: This type of cancer has spread to distant lymph nodes, tissues, or organs in the body far away from the site of origin.

Diagnosing Cancer

Various tests may be performed in order to confirm a cancer diagnosis. Positron Emission Tomography and Computed Tomography (PET-CT) Scans and other similar tests can highlight “hot spots” of cancer cells with high metabolic rates.
The most common test and procedures used to diagnose cancer include:

• Mammogram
• Pap Test
• Tumor Marker Test
• Bone Scan
• MRI
• Tissue Biopsy
• PET-CT Scan

The Role of Lymph Nodes in Cancer Diagnosis

Cancer that originates in the lymph nodes or other area of the lymphatic system is called lymphoma. Cancer that originates elsewhere in the body can spread to lymph nodes. The presence of metastasized cancer in the lymph nodes is may mean the cancer is growing quickly and/or is more likely to spread to other sites. The presence of cancer in lymph nodes often affects prognosis and treatment decisions. Many diagnostic tests look at the lymph nodes as an indicator.

What Are Treatment Options ?

The treatment is highly variable depending on the type and stage of a cancer as well as the overall health of the patient. The most common treatments are surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Other treatments include targeted/biological therapies, hematopoietic stem cell transplants, angiogenesis inhibitors, cryosurgery, and photodynamic therapy.
Every treatment has potential risks, benefits, and side effects. The patient and his or her care team, which may include an internist or other specialist, surgeon, oncologist, radiation oncologist, and others, will help determine the best and most appropriate course of treatment.

Is There a Cure for Cancer ?

Despite enormous effort and funding, no one cure has been found yet to eliminate cancer. In 2016, the United States announced a $1 billion investment into creating such a cure, named the “National Cancer Moonshot” by President Barack Obama.
Until a cure can be found, prevention through a healthy lifestyle is the best way to stop cancer. Some ways to help protect yourself from cancer include eating plenty of fruits and vegetables, maintaining a healthy weight, abstaining from tobacco, drinking only in moderation, exercising, avoiding sun damage, getting immunizations, and getting regular health screenings.

Surgery

Surgery is often performed to remove malignant tumors. Surgery allows for the determination of the exact size of the tumor as well as the extent of spread and invasion into other nearby structures or lymph nodes – all-important factors in prognosis and treatment. Surgery is often combined with other cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy and/or radiation.
Sometimes, cancer cannot be entirely surgically removed because doing so would damage critical organs or tissues. In this case, debulking surgery is performed to remove as much of the tumor as is safely possible. Similarly, palliative surgery is performed in the cases of advanced cancer to reduce the effects (for example, pain or discomfort) of a cancerous tumor. Debulking and palliative surgeries are not curative, but they seek to minimize the effects of the cancer.
Reconstructive surgery can be performed to restore the look or function of part of the body after cancer surgery. Breast reconstruction after a mastectomy is an example of this kind of surgery.

Radiation Therapy

Radiation is a very common cancer treatment. About 50% of all cancer patients will receive radiation treatment, which may be delivered before, during, or after surgery and/or chemotherapy. Radiation can be delivered externally -- where X-rays, gamma rays, or other high-energy particles are delivered to the affected area from outside the body -- or it can be delivered internally. Internal radiation therapy involves the placement of radioactive material inside the body near cancer cells. This is called brachytherapy.
Systemic radiation involves the administration of radioactive medication by mouth or intravenously. The radioactive material travels directly to the cancerous tissue. Radioactive iodine (I-131 for thyroid cancer) and strontium-89 (for bone cancer) are two examples of systemic radiation treatments.
Typically, external radiation is delivered 5 days a week over the course of 5 to 8 weeks. Other treatment regimens are sometimes used.

Chemotherapy Procedure

Chemotherapy, or "chemo," refers to more than 100 different medications used to treat cancer and other conditions. If eliminating all cancer cells is not possible, the goals of treatment may be to slow the growth of the cancer, keep the cancer from spreading, and/or relieve cancer-associated symptoms (such as pain).
Depending on the type of chemotherapy prescribed, the medications may be given by mouth, injection, intravenously (IV), or topically. IV chemotherapy may be delivered via a catheter or port, which is usually implanted in a blood vessel of the chest for the duration of the therapy. Sometimes chemotherapy is delivered regionally, directly to the area that needs treatment. For example, intravesical therapy is used to infuse chemotherapy directly into the bladder for the treatment of bladder cancer.
The chemotherapy regimen a patient receives depends upon the type and stage of the cancer, any prior cancer treatment, and the overall health of the patient. Chemotherapy is usually administered in cycles over the course of days, weeks, or months, with rest periods in between.

Other Treatments

In addition to surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, other therapies are used to treat cancer. These include:

Targeted or Biological Therapies

Targeted or biological therapies seek to treat cancer and boost the body's immune system while minimizing damage to normal, healthy cells. Monoclonal antibodies, immunomodulating drugs, vaccines, and cytokines are examples of targeted or biological therapies.

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplants

Hematopoietic stem cell transplants involve the infusion of stem cells into a cancer patient after the bone marrow has been destroyed by high-dose chemo and/or radiation.

Angiogenesis Inhibitors

Angiogenesis inhibitors are medications that inhibit the growth of new blood vessels that cancerous tumors need in order to grow.

Cryosurgery

Cryosurgery involves the application of extreme cold to kill precancerous and cancerous cells.

Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves the application of laser energy of a specific wavelength to tissue that has been treated with a photosensitizing agent, a medication that makes cancerous tissue susceptible to destruction with laser treatment. Photodynamic therapy selectively destroys cancer cells while minimizing the damage to normal, healthy tissues nearby.

Ongoing Research

Ongoing cancer research continues to identify newer, less toxic, and more effective cancer treatments. Visit the National Cancer Institute (NCI) to see a list of ongoing clinical trials

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